The Apocryphal and Non-Canonical Books

Timelines, Authorship, and How Protestants Encounter Ancient Jewish and Christian Literature
400 BC to 100 AD: The Intertestamental Period and Early Christian Era

Introduction: Why This Question Matters

In Bible studies, questions inevitably arise: What about the Book of Enoch? The Ethiopian Bible? The Dead Sea Scrolls? Why aren’t these in my Bible? If the early church knew about them, shouldn’t we?

These are legitimate questions that reflect genuine curiosity—not skepticism. For people rebuilding faith or recovering from spiritual harm, such questions carry deeper weight: “Can I trust I have the real Bible? Has something been hidden from me?”

This study addresses these concerns by examining what apocryphal and non-canonical books are, when they were written, why the early church did not include them in the biblical canon, and how Protestants today can engage them maturely. The goal is to develop a historically grounded, intellectually honest approach to Scripture and tradition.

Key principle: You can ask hard questions and remain confident in biblical authority. These are not contradictions.

Part I: Definitions and Categories

Understanding apocryphal texts requires clear definitions. Below are the key terms:

Key Terms

  • Canon: The authoritative collection of books recognized by a religious community as Scripture—divinely inspired and authoritative for faith and practice.
  • Apocrypha (or Deuterocanonical): Books written in the intertestamental period (roughly 400-165 BC) or early Christian era that are included in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles but not in Protestant Bibles. Examples: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, 1-2 Maccabees, and additions to Daniel and Esther.
  • Pseudepigrapha: Books falsely attributed to ancient figures. They claim authorship by biblical characters (Enoch, Noah, Abraham) but were actually written centuries later. Examples: 1 Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Psalms of Solomon.
  • Dead Sea Scrolls: Manuscripts discovered near Qumran (1947-1956) dating from roughly 200 BC to 70 AD. They include biblical texts, sectarian documents, and apocryphal works. The community that preserved them (likely Essenes) had its own canon that included non-canonical books.
  • Apostolic Fathers: Early Christian writings from roughly 95-150 AD by leaders who knew the apostles or their immediate successors. Examples: 1 Clement, Didache, Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas. These are valued but not considered Scripture.

Why Different Categories Exist

These categories exist because different religious communities made different canonical decisions:

• The Hebrew Bible/Old Testament canon (39 books in Protestant tradition) was essentially settled by 100 AD and includes only books written by recognized prophets or composed in Hebrew/Aramaic.

• The Septuagint canon (Greek translation used by Greek-speaking Jews and Christians) included additional books, especially when communities valued them pastorally or theologically.

• Catholic and Orthodox churches eventually canonized some apocryphal books as deuterocanonical (“second-tier canonical”)—authoritative but different in status from the core books.

• Protestants, following the Reformation principle that only universally recognized apostolic books belong in Scripture, excluded apocryphal and pseudepigraphal works.

These are not evidence of corruption or conspiracy—they reflect how different church communities prioritized different criteria for what counts as Scripture.

Part II: Timeline and Authorship of Major Apocryphal Works

The intertestamental period (400-165 BC) and early Christian era (100 BC-150 AD) produced numerous texts. Below are the most significant, organized by period:

400-200 BC: Persian and Early Hellenistic Period

  1. Tobit
    • Date: Approximately 200-150 BC
    • Author: Unknown (Jewish diaspora author, possibly Egyptian)
    • Content: Story of a righteous Jewish family exiled in Assyria, emphasizing faithful prayer and divine providence
    • Status: Included in Catholic, Orthodox, and Ethiopian canons; not in Protestant canon
  2. Judith
    • Date: Approximately 150-100 BC
    • Author: Unknown (likely Palestinian Jewish author)
    • Content: Tale of a brave Jewish widow who delivers her people from foreign invaders through courage and faith
    • Status: Included in Catholic, Orthodox, and Ethiopian canons; not in Protestant canon
  3. Letter of Jeremiah
    • Date: Approximately 300-100 BC
    • Author: Unknown (pseudepigraphic, falsely attributed to the prophet Jeremiah)
    • Content: Satirical letter warning against idolatry and encouraging faith during exile
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons (usually appended to Baruch); not in Protestant canon

200-150 BC: Seleucid Period

  1. Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
    • Date: Approximately 180 BC
    • Author: Jesus ben Sirach (Greek translation by his grandson)
    • Content: Wisdom literature with extensive ethical teaching, praise of the patriarchs, and encouragement for faithfulness during persecution
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons; not in Protestant canon. Highly valued in early Christianity (quoted in NT contexts)
  2. 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Enoch)
    • Date: Approximately 300-100 BC (composite with sections added over time)
    • Author: Multiple unknown authors (pseudepigraphic, falsely attributed to Enoch)
    • Content: Apocalyptic visions, descriptions of fallen angels and their punishment, predictions of judgment, astronomical descriptions, and ethical exhortations
    • Status: Included in Ethiopian Orthodox canon; quoted in Jude (NT); preserved mainly in Geʽez; not in Protestant, Catholic, or mainstream Orthodox canons
  3. Jubilees (Book of Divisions)
    • Date: Approximately 150 BC
    • Author: Unknown (pseudepigraphic, presented as dictated to Moses)
    • Content: Retelling of Genesis and parts of Exodus divided into ‘jubilees’ (50-year periods); emphasizes calendar reform and strict adherence to Torah
    • Status: Valued by some Dead Sea Scroll communities and Ethiopian tradition; not in mainstream Protestant, Catholic, or Orthodox canons
  4. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
    • Date: Approximately 200-100 BC
    • Author: Unknown (pseudepigraphic, attributed to Jacob’s twelve sons)
    • Content: Ethical teachings from each patriarch plus apocalyptic predictions; influenced by Greek philosophy and Jewish theology
    • Status: Valued in early Christianity; some texts found at Qumran; not in any mainstream canon

150-100 BC: Maccabean Period

  1. 1 Maccabees
    • Date: Approximately 100 BC
    • Author: Unknown (likely Jewish historian in Palestine)
    • Content: Historical account of the Jewish revolt against Seleucid oppression (167-142 BC), the Maccabean wars, and establishment of Jewish independence
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons; not in Protestant canon; highly valuable as historical source
  2. 2 Maccabees
    • Date: Approximately 100 BC
    • Author: Unknown (likely Greek-speaking Jewish author in Egypt; abridgment of a work by Jason of Cyrene)
    • Content: Theological narrative of the Maccabean revolt emphasizing divine intervention, resurrection of the faithful, and religious persecution
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons; not in Protestant canon
  3. Wisdom of Solomon
    • Date: Approximately 50-10 BC
    • Author: Unknown (Jewish philosopher in Egypt, pseudepigraphic—falsely attributed to Solomon)
    • Content: Philosophical wisdom literature exploring immortality, divine justice, and the role of Wisdom in creation; blends Jewish theology with Greek philosophy
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons; not in Protestant canon; influential in early Christian thought

100 BC – 100 AD: Roman Period and Early Christian Era

  1. Psalms of Solomon
    • Date: Approximately 50 BC
    • Author: Unknown (Jewish poet in Palestine, pseudepigraphic)
    • Content: 18 psalms reflecting on national suffering, messianic hope, and resurrection; possibly composed during Roman occupation
    • Status: Not in any mainstream canon; discovered at Qumran and in later manuscripts; valued by scholars studying messianic expectations
  2. 2 Enoch (Slavonic Enoch)
    • Date: Approximately 1st century AD
    • Author: Unknown (Jewish author, possibly from Egypt; pseudepigraphic)
    • Content: Enoch’s mystical journey through ten heavens; heavenly secrets and apocalyptic visions
    • Status: Preserved mainly in Slavonic; not in mainstream canons; valued in some Eastern Orthodox contexts
  3. 3 & 4 Maccabees
    • Date: 3 Maccabees ≈ 100 BC; 4 Maccabees ≈ 1st century AD
    • Author: Unknown (Greek-speaking Jewish authors in Egypt)
    • Content: 3 Maccabees—miraculous deliverance from Egyptian persecution; 4 Maccabees—philosophical discourse on reason and martyrdom
    • Status: Not in Protestant or mainstream Catholic canons; 4 Maccabees included in Orthodox canon; important for understanding Hellenistic Judaism
  4. Baruch
    • Date: Approximately 1st century AD
    • Author: Unknown (pseudepigraphic, falsely attributed to Jeremiah’s scribe Baruch)
    • Content: Confession of sin, lament over Jerusalem’s destruction, and consolation; written after 70 AD destruction (though pseudonymously attributed to Baruch’s time)
    • Status: Included in Catholic and Orthodox canons; not in Protestant canon
  5. Dead Sea Scroll Texts
    • Date: Approximately 200 BC – 70 AD
    • Author: Various (Qumran community members, primarily Essenes)
    • Content: Community Rule, War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, Damascus Document, biblical commentaries (pesharim), and apocryphal works
    • Status: Not canonical in any mainstream tradition; extraordinarily valuable for understanding Second Temple Judaism and early messianic expectations

70-150 AD: Post-Destruction Christian and Jewish Writings

  1. 1 Clement
    • Date: Approximately 95-96 AD
    • Author: Clement of Rome (though traditionally attributed to him; authorship debated)
    • Content: Letter from Rome to Corinth addressing internal conflict; emphasizes unity, order, and succession
    • Status: Apostolic Father; highly valued but not canonical; preserved in early manuscripts
  2. Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles)
    • Date: Approximately 70-140 AD
    • Author: Unknown (early Christian community)
    • Content: Early Christian teaching including moral instruction (Two Ways), prayer practices, eucharistic liturgy, and church order
    • Status: Apostolic Father; not canonical; extremely valuable for understanding early church practice
  3. Epistle of Barnabas
    • Date: Approximately 70-135 AD
    • Author: Unknown (possibly attributed to Barnabas, Paul’s associate, but not by him)
    • Content: Theological treatise distinguishing between old and new covenants; allegorical biblical interpretation; includes ‘Two Ways’ teaching
    • Status: Apostolic Father; not canonical; reflects early Christian-Jewish tensions
  4. Gospel of Thomas
    • Date: Approximately 50-140 AD
    • Author: Unknown (pseudepigraphic, falsely attributed to Thomas)
    • Content: 114 sayings of Jesus (no narrative); emphasizes hidden knowledge and self-knowledge; gnostic tendencies
    • Status: Not canonical; discovered at Nag Hammadi; valuable for understanding Gnosticism and sayings traditions

Other New Testament Apocrypha (Acts of Peter, Acts of Paul, Acts of Thomas, Gospel of Mary, Gospel of Philip, Apocalypse of Peter, and numerous others) date from 150-350 AD onward. These texts—which include expanded narratives of apostles’ acts, esoteric teachings, and alternative gospels—were not canonized because many reflect gnostic or heretical teachings. They remain valuable for historical understanding of early Christian diversity.

Part III: Why These Books Were Not Included in the Protestant Canon

The Protestant canon consists of 66 books (39 OT, 27 NT). The apocryphal and pseudepigraphal books were excluded for five specific, consistent reasons:

  1. The Criterion of Apostolic Authority
    For Old Testament books, the early church asked: Was this written by a recognized prophet of Israel? For New Testament books: Was this written by an apostle or close associate of an apostle? Apocryphal books were written by unknown authors after the prophetic office had ceased.
  2. The Criterion of Falsehood
    Many apocryphal books are pseudepigraphic (falsely attributed to ancient figures). While pseudonymity was common in ancient literature, the early church was troubled by false attribution regarding Scripture. Books falsely claiming authorship were viewed skeptically.
  3. The Criterion of Universal Reception
    Books that were canonized were recognized across the whole Christian church (or at least across major Christian centers). Apocryphal books were valued in some communities but not universally. For example, 1 Enoch was valued by Ethiopian Christians but largely rejected elsewhere.
  4. The Criterion of Theological Orthodoxy
    Some apocryphal books (especially later New Testament apocrypha) contained teachings that diverged from apostolic Christianity. Gnostic gospels taught hidden knowledge and denied bodily resurrection. These were excluded because they contradicted core Christian belief.
  5. The Criterion of Sufficiency
    The 39 OT and 27 NT books were recognized as sufficient for faith and practice. They contained everything necessary for salvation and Christian living. Apocryphal additions, while sometimes edifying, were not essential.

Why Catholics and Orthodox Include Some Apocryphal Books

It’s important to note that Catholic and Orthodox churches did canonize some apocryphal books (especially Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1-2 Maccabees). They did so because:

  • These books were included in the Septuagint (Greek OT) used by early Christians
  • They were used liturgically in worship and valued pastorally
  • They were believed to be useful for doctrine and morals (even if not directly prophetic)

These books are called deuterocanonical (“second canon”) by Catholics—they are canonical but recognized as secondary to the primary books written by prophets or apostles. Protestants, following the Reformation principle, limited the canon to books with clear apostolic authority and universal reception, excluding even the deuterocanonical books. This was a theological choice, not evidence of hidden conspiracy.

Part IV: How Protestants Should Encounter These Books

Understanding how to engage apocryphal texts requires a clear framework. This section provides that framework.

Foundational Principle: Scripture and Tradition Are Not the Same

A core Protestant principle is the distinction between Scripture (God’s authoritative Word) and Tradition (the church’s teaching, though valuable and often wise). This principle clarifies how to engage apocryphal texts:

  • Scripture is the canon of 66 books (39 OT, 27 NT). It is God’s Word, authoritative, and the standard by which all other claims are measured.
  • Tradition includes the church’s interpretation, liturgical practices, and valued texts from history. It is important but subordinate to Scripture.
  • Apocryphal and pseudepigraphal books belong in the Tradition category—they are historically important, sometimes wise, occasionally quoted by Scripture (like 1 Enoch in Jude), but not authoritative Scripture.

A Protestant Approach: Five Levels of Authority

It’s helpful to think of biblical and extra-biblical texts in terms of concentric levels of authority:

  1. Level 1: The Core Canon (Highest Authority)
    The 66 books of Scripture—the Torah, Prophets, Writings (39 OT), and the Gospels and Apostolic Epistles (27 NT). These are God’s Word.
    Application: In disputes about faith or doctrine, these texts settle the matter. If an apocryphal text contradicts these, the apocryphal text is wrong.
  2. Level 2: Deuterocanonical/Apocryphal Books (Secondary Authority)
    Books like Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, and 1-2 Maccabees. These are ancient, historically important, sometimes profound, and valued in Catholic and Orthodox traditions.
    Application: Read them for edification, historical understanding, and wisdom. They provide valuable context for understanding intertestamental Judaism. But do not build doctrine on them alone; test them against the core canon.
  3. Level 3: Pseudepigraphal Works (Historical and Contextual Value)
    Books like 1 Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and Psalms of Solomon. These reflect Jewish thought between the testaments.
    Application: Study them to understand Jewish messianic hopes, angelology, and apocalyptic expectations. They illuminate the biblical text. But recognize that they are not God’s Word in the same way Scripture is.
  4. Level 4: The Apostolic Fathers (Early Christian Wisdom)
    Writings like 1 Clement, Didache, and Epistle of Barnabas from the 1st-early 2nd century. These show how the earliest post-apostolic Christians understood faith and practiced church.
    Application: Read to understand the early church and how thought developed. But they are not Scripture and can contain mistakes.
  5. Level 5: Dead Sea Scrolls and Archaeological Data (Background Understanding)
    Manuscripts and texts discovered at Qumran and elsewhere. These provide invaluable background on Second Temple Judaism, biblical text transmission, and religious practices.
    Application: Use them to understand context. They don’t teach doctrine, but they enrich understanding of the biblical world.

Common Questions About Apocryphal Texts

  • Are we missing something by not having 1 Enoch in our Bible?
    No. Everything necessary for faith and practice is in the 66 books. The fact that Jude briefly references 1 Enoch (Jude 14) does not mean 1 Enoch is Scripture—just as Paul quoting Greek poets (Acts 17:28) doesn’t make those texts canonical.
    That said, studying 1 Enoch is valuable for understanding Jewish thought and the cultural context of the New Testament. It just is not authoritative Scripture.
  • Why is the Ethiopian Bible different?
    The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has a larger canon that includes books like 1 Enoch and other texts. This reflects the historical development of the church in Ethiopia, which developed somewhat independently of Western and mainstream Eastern churches. The Ethiopian canon represents a legitimate historical tradition, but it is not normative for global Christianity.
    Different canons do not mean Scripture is unstable. They reflect different church communities valuing different traditions. The core 66 books are recognized across all mainstream Christian traditions (Protestant, Catholic, Orthodox).
  • How should I respond if someone claims the apocrypha was ‘removed’?
    Gently correct the record: Apocryphal books were not removed from the Bible. Rather, they were never universally included in the first place. Different early church communities valued them differently. When Protestants limited the canon to 66 books at the Reformation, they were not removing something once universal; they were making explicit the distinction between Scripture and Tradition that had always existed.
    Catholics still include some deuterocanonical books. Orthodox churches include others. Protestants include none. These are legitimate historical developments, not evidence of conspiracy or corruption.

Practical Guidance for Studying Apocryphal Texts

  1. Start with the core canon. Know Scripture first. Let it be your foundation. Then study apocryphal texts as contextual material.
  2. Use scholarly resources. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (ed. Charlesworth) is the standard two-volume collection. For Dead Sea Scrolls, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible is accessible. Scholarly introductions explain context and authorship.
  3. Ask key questions: What does this text tell me about Second Temple Judaism? What messianic hopes did people hold? How does this illuminate the biblical text? What can I learn about theology or ethics?
  4. Be careful about accepting doctrines from apocryphal texts that contradict Scripture. For example, some apocryphal texts teach reincarnation or other non-canonical doctrines. Test everything against the core canon.
  5. Enjoy them! These texts often contain profound wisdom, striking imagery, and important perspectives. They are not Scripture, but they are valuable witnesses to ancient faith.

Part V: For Those in Recovery or Rebuilding Faith

For people who have experienced spiritual harm or are rebuilding trust in Scripture, questions about apocryphal texts carry emotional weight. These are not merely academic questions. They often reflect deeper concerns: “Can I trust that I have the real Bible? Or has something been hidden from me?”

If this is your situation, know this clearly: You have the real Bible. The 66 books are not a diminished version; they are the universally recognized core across all mainstream Christian traditions. The apocryphal texts are valuable for understanding history and context, but they are supplementary, not essential. You are not missing something crucial. You can read your Bible with confidence.

Questions That Indicate Healthy Engagement

  • “How did the church decide which books belonged in the Bible?”—This is a legitimate historical question.
  • “What can I learn from apocryphal texts about the biblical period?”—This shows intellectual curiosity.
  • “How do different Christian traditions view these texts?”—This demonstrates openness to learning.

Red Flags to Watch For

Be cautious of people or resources that:

  • Claim ‘secret books’ were hidden by the church to control people
  • Suggest you can only find truth by bypassing the mainstream canon
  • Profit from selling ‘lost gospels’ or alternative canons
  • Use apocryphal texts to undermine your confidence in Scripture

These are manipulation tactics, not honest scholarship. Legitimate scholars study these texts transparently, acknowledge their limitations, and do not use them to undermine the core canon. You can engage these texts honestly without abandoning your confidence in Scripture. The two are not contradictory.

Part VI: Application—What Does This Mean for Us?

Understanding apocryphal texts is not merely an academic exercise. It has practical implications for how we read Scripture, how we answer difficult questions, and how we build confidence in God’s Word.

  1. We can be honest and confident at the same time.
    Acknowledging that different canons exist, that questions about Scripture are legitimate, and that scholars debate details—none of this undermines biblical authority. In fact, mature faith is strengthened by intellectual honesty. You don’t have to defend every detail of every text to trust that Scripture speaks with God’s authority. Confidence doesn’t require naivety.
  2. Scripture is sufficient even if apocryphal texts are interesting.
    The 66 books of the Bible contain everything necessary for salvation, transformation, and faithful living. Apocryphal texts enrich understanding of the biblical period, but they are not required for discipleship. You don’t need ‘hidden’ books to know Jesus or to follow Him. Everything essential is already in your Bible.
  3. Different Christian traditions can respect each other’s canons.
    Catholics include deuterocanonical books; Orthodox churches include others; Protestants include none. These are legitimate historical developments, not evidence that someone has the ‘wrong’ Bible. Mutual respect for these traditions strengthens Christian unity rather than fragmenting it.
  4. Questions about canon and transmission are healthy, not dangerous.
    Asking ‘How did we get the Bible?’ and ‘Why is the Ethiopian Bible different?’ are not threats to faith—they are invitations to deeper understanding. If you’ve been taught that asking such questions is wrong or rebellious, that message may reflect fear rather than truth. Good scholarship welcomes investigation.
  5. The foundation of your faith is Jesus, not a perfect manuscript transmission.
    Whether or not you understand every detail of how the canon was formed, whether or not you’ve read 1 Enoch or the Dead Sea Scrolls, the core truth remains: Jesus Christ is Lord, He rose from the dead, and He offers you redemption and relationship with God. That truth stands secure regardless of scholarly debates about the edges of the canon.

Closing: A Mature Approach to Scripture and Tradition

Mature Christian faith does not require you to be naive about history or afraid to ask questions. The 66 books of Scripture stand as God’s Word. This is not threatened by the existence of apocryphal texts. Rather:

• Scripture is authoritative. It is the measure by which all other claims are tested. It is sufficient for faith and practice.

• Tradition is valuable. The church’s teachings, practices, and valued texts (including apocryphal works) offer wisdom. They deserve respect.

• History matters. Understanding how the canon developed, why certain books were included or excluded, and what role apocryphal texts played enriches your faith.

• Integrity matters. Scholars who study these texts carefully, acknowledging both what we know and what we do not know, deserve your trust more than those making sensational claims.

• Christ is central. Whether you study canonical or apocryphal texts, the question is always: What does this teach me about God and Jesus? How does it call me to follow Him?

The apocryphal and non-canonical books are worthy of study. They are not hidden treasures or suppressed secrets. They are part of the rich literary and theological heritage of Judaism and early Christianity. Read them with an open mind and a discerning heart. But keep your eyes fixed on the canon—on Scripture—as your authoritative foundation.

That is the ground on which confident faith stands.

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For related studies in this series, see: “Line of Evidence for the Reliability and Accuracy of the Protestant Canon” and “Reliability and Transmission of the Torah.